MAKE OUR HOMES GREEN, COMFORTABLE AND HEALTHY

Global warming is the current rise in the average temperature of Earth's oceans and atmosphere. The scientific consensus is that global warming is occurring and was initiated by human activities, especially those that increase concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels. This finding is recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized countries and is not rejected by any scientific body of national or international standing.

An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical deserts. Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming include more frequent occurrence of extreme weather events including heatwaves, droughts and heavy rainfall events, species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these regional changes is uncertain. In a 4°C world, the limits for human adaptation are likely to be exceeded in many parts of the world, while the limits for adaptation for natural systems would largely be exceeded throughout the world. Hence, the ecosystem services upon which human livelihoods depend would not be preserved.

The Kyoto Protocol is aimed at stabilizing greenhouse gas concentration to prevent a "dangerous anthropogenic interference". As of May 2010, 192 states had ratified the protocol. The only members of the UNFCCC that were asked to sign the treaty but have not yet ratified it are the USA and Afghanistan. Proposed responses to global warming include mitigation to reduce emissions, adaptation to the effects of global warming, and geoengineering to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere or reflect incoming solar radiation back to space. According to a recent Gallup poll, people in most countries are more likely to attribute global warming to human activities than to natural causes. The major exception is the U.S., where nearly half the US population attributes global warming to natural causes despite overwhelming scientific opinion to the contrary.

Need Green Houses initiated

Green homes have high economic value, though not require expensive. Indonesia's traditional house has environmentally friendly design as well as cheaper.

This was conveyed Energy Efficiency Design and Architecture Engineer Tri Harso Karyono on Media Meeting with Occupancy with Integrated Green Concept on Mercantile Club Tamara Building, Jalan Sudirman Jakarta, Monday, March 23, 2009.

According to Tri, green housing does not mean expensive. Green residential architecture relies on environmentally friendly causing minimal waste. "The design extreme home Bali and Bedui," he said.

Actually, the green house is not a very difficult and expensive, but most local designers and architects have not much to know, so ignored. In addition to the use of solar power, which is quite expensive, traditional houses adopt housing may be implemented in regular housing.

Tri said, the development of green areas will benefit all parties, not only for homeowners but also for the environment and the government.

He said the government needs to step in green housing provision as set by the government of Scotland. "In Scotland the developer who claims the concept of green, but the reality could not be arrested," he said.

Tri judge, the government is too slow to apply the rules needed some regions. Big cities like Jakarta, which affected the risk of contamination is quite large, green housing needs is essential.

Chairman, Department of Environmental Health of Public Health Faculty on University of Indonesia Budi Haryanto said, environmentally friendly residential areas should be supported and the device that is also environmentally friendly.

Mass transport to reduce energy wastage. Similarly, by expanding the accessibility of pedestrian green housing to reduce the use of transport cause pollution. "But most of that happening now can only be designed residential design with private transport," he said.

Budi said the green housing concept education process must be done from the level of government until the executor (contractor). Because, often the contractor doing the construction of polluting the environment.

Examples of fact, the construction of septic tanks should have good air-tight and usually must be drained in three years. "Contractors are often built of brick septic tank where the water is seeping into the ground. so the time drain up to 7 years. Education to these bad contractors are often loose, "said Budi.

The concept of Energy Efficient Houses

A company in the United States succeeded in developing an energy efficient home. The concept of home is called Enertia Building System (www.enertia.com) can maintain the condition of the home stay warm in winter and stay cool in summer. Both day and night, the air inside the house can stay comfortably without having to spend fuel for heating or electricity for air conditioning.
An air flow and access channel, or Envelope, runs around the building, just inside the walls - creating a miniature biosphere. Here solar heated air circulates, pumping and boosting geothermal energy from beneath the house, storing it in the massive wood walls. Thermal inertia causes the house to "float" between the cycles of night and day, and even between the seasons.

references:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming
http://bisnis.vivanews.com/news/read/43159-rumah_hijau_perlu_mulai_dirintis
www.enertia.com

Dengue Fever : How to Prevent

Dengue fever, also known as breakbone fever, is an infectious tropical disease caused by the dengue virus. Typical symptoms include fever, headache, a characteristic morbilliform skin rash, and muscle and joint pains; in a small proportion the disease progresses to life-threatening complications such as dengue hemorrhagic fever (which may lead to severe bleeding) and dengue shock syndrome (where inadequate perfusion of tissues can cause organ dysfunction or failure and even death).
Dengue is transmitted by several species of mosquito within the Aedes genus, particularly A. aegypti. The virus exists in four different types, and an infection with one type usually gives lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term immunity to the others. There is currently no available vaccine, but measures to reduce the habitat and the number of mosquitoes, and limiting exposure to bites, are used to decrease the incidence of dengue.
Treatment of acute dengue is supportive, using either oral or intravenous rehydration for mild or moderate disease, and intravenous fluids and blood transfusion for more severe cases. The incidence of dengue fever has increased dramatically over the last 50 years, with around 50–100 million people being infected yearly. Dengue is currently endemic in more than 110 countries. Early descriptions of the condition date from 1779, and its viral cause and the transmission were elucidated in the early 20th century. Dengue has become a worldwide problem since the Second World War.

Clinical course

The characteristic symptoms of dengue are: a sudden-onset fever, headache (typically behind the eyes), muscle and joint pains, and a rash; the alternative name for dengue, "break-bone fever", comes from the associated muscle and joints pains. The course of infection is divided into three phases: febrile, critical, and recovery.
The febrile phase involves high fevers, frequently over 40 °C (104 °F) and associated with generalized pain and a headache; this usually lasts 2–7 days. Flushed skin and some small red spots called petechiae, which are caused by broken capillaries, may occur at this point, as may some mild bleeding from mucous membranes of the mouth and nose.
The critical phase, if it occurs, follows the resolution of the high fever and typically lasts one to two days. During this phase there may be significant fluid accumulation in the chest and abdominal cavity due to increased capillary permeability and leakage. This leads to depletion of fluid from the circulation and decreased blood supply to vital organs. During this phase, organ dysfunction and severe bleeding (typically from the gastrointestinal tract) may occur. Shock and hemorrhage occur in less than 5% of all cases of dengue but those who have previously been infected with other serotypes of dengue virus ("secondary infection") have an increased risk of this.
The recovery phase occurs next, with resorption of the leaked fluid into the bloodstream. This usually occurs over a period of two to three days. The improvement is often striking, but there may be severe itching and a slow heart rate. It is during this stage that a fluid overload state may occur, which if it affects the brain may reduce the level of consciousness or cause seizures.
Management
There are no specific treatments for the dengue fever virus. Treatment depends on the symptoms, varying from oral rehydration therapy at home with close follow-up, to hospital admission with administration of intravenous fluids and/or blood transfusion. A decision for hospital admission is typically based on the presence of the "warning signs" listed in the table above, especially in those with preexisting health conditions.
Intravenous hydration is usually only needed for one or two days. The rate of fluid administration is titrated to a urinary output of 0.5–1 mL/kg/hr, stable vital signs and normalization of hematocrit. Invasive medical procedures such as nasogastric intubation, intramuscular injections and arterial punctures are avoided, in view of the bleeding risk. Acetaminophen may be used for fever and discomfort while NSAIDs such as ibuprofen and aspirin are avoided as they might aggravate the risk of bleeding. Blood transfusion is initiated early in patients presenting with unstable vital signs in the face of a decreasing hematocrit, rather than waiting for the hemoglobin concentration to decrease to some predetermined "transfusion trigger" level. Packed red blood cells or whole blood are recommended, while platelets and fresh frozen plasma are usually not.
During the recovery phase intravenous fluids are discontinued to prevent a state of fluid overload. If fluid overload occurs and vital signs are stable, stopping further fluid may be all that is needed. If a person is outside of the critical phase, a loop diuretic such as furosemide may be used to eliminate excess fluid from the circulation.

Prevention of Dengue Fever

To prevent dengue, mosquito transmission (Aedes aegypti) must be eliminated, because vacsin for prevention are not yet available
1) Proper way to eradicate Aedes aegypti mosquito-larvae is to eradicate the breeding grounds.
2) Therefore there breeding grounds in homes and public places, then every family should regularly carry out environmental hygiene at least once a week
3) Bathtub drain at least 1 week
4) Seal water reservoirs
5) Replace vase water / water plants once a week
6) Changing the drinking water of birds
7) Hoarding used goods that can hold water
8) Sowing Abete powder or altosid in places that are difficult drained water reservoirs or in areas with clean water scarce, so we need rainwater
Abate dose: 1 tablespoon pressed (+ 10 grams) to 100 liters of water
Altosid dose: 1 / 4 teaspoon pressed (+ 2.5 grams) to 100 liters
9) Keeping fish in places where water reservoirs
10) fogging with mosquito killer drug in mosquito breeding. required to kill adult mosquitoes

Development Planning Procedures for Public Toilets (Bathing, Washing, Toilet)

Indonesian National Standards
SNI 03-2399-2002
(REVISED SNI 03-2399-1991)

SCOPE:
This ordinance covers, the requirements that apply to indoor toilet facilities are located in dense residential location, with maximum usage load 200 people.

SUMMARY:
The procedure is intended as a guide for planners and implementers in building public toilets. Public toilets are public facilities that is shared by several families for bathing, washing and toilet location of settlements with a population with moderate to high density (300-500 persons / ha).
General requirements Toilets divided into 3 (three), namely: a. Public toilets development plan (location, number of users, clean water system, waste water disposal systems); b. ability of facilities management; c. Water management of waste from toilets and public toilets should be treated before disposal so as not to pollute water, air and land in settlements.
For the capacity of services, all in one room can accommodate a service at the time (hours) and number of the busiest room in every single unit restroom for a certain number of users listed in the table and sample layouts toilets can be seen in the images in this ordinance. Building Materials for public toilets, the material can be used are: local building materials; ease of providers of building materials, easy to implement, can be accepted by the user community. Alternative use of building materials for building latrines can be selected from tabil 2, in this ordinance. Terms bathroom includes floor area of at least 1.2 m2 (1.0 mx 1.2 m) and made no slippery slope toward the hole with the disposal of approximately 1%.; Door, size: width 0.6 to 0.8 and at least 1.6 m. high; bath / shower water container vessel equipped to scoop. Facility washrooms, minimum floor area of 2.40 m2 (1.20 m x 2.0 m) and made no slippery slope toward the hole where the disposal of approximately 1%; Places crush clothing made by squatting or standing, high-place crush clothing by standing 0.75 m above the floor with at least size 0.60 m x 0.80 m.

The Importance Of Toilets To Public Health

A toilet is a plumbing fixture primarily intended for the disposal of human excreta: urine and fecal matter. Additionally, vomit and menstrual waste are sometimes disposed of in toilets in some societies. The word toilet describes the fixture and, especially in British English, the room containing the fixture. In American English, the latter is euphemistically called a restroom or bathroom. The latter term often describes a room that also contains a bath tub. A room with only a toilet and a sink is sometimes called a half-bathroom, a half bath, or a powder room.

Case in Indonesia
Amid the environmental conditions of dense population, most of the citizens of District west Pademangan, Jakarta still need a public toilet facilities. Because of the 11,959 houses, only 2111 homes already equipped with toilets. Means there are 9848 homes whose residents still rely on public toilets for more than shitting.

Seeing such high demand for public toilets in west Pademangan Village, Mercy Corp. will launch a Community Based Sanitation Program in dense areas and the slums. Pademangan is one of the main pilot project Mercy Corp in this community-based sanitation programs. The first step, Mercy Corp. will build a public toilet in the RW 010 units west Pademangan immediately.

Regarding the poor sanitary conditions of citizens, explained Lurah Pademangan west, Purnomo. He explained, the current population reached 620,902 people with an area of only 353.35 hectares. Means every one square kilometer there are 17,571 inhabitants. "They are scattered in 16 neighborhood (RW)," he told beritajakarta.com, Thursday (6 / 8).

Malang, East Java

The river was still widely used by citizens of Malang for the purposes of bathing, washing and toilet (MCK). Unhealthy living habits are still hard to change because people have become habit for generations. Based on the study Environmental Health Risk Assessment (EHRA) or Environmental Health Risk assessments are carried out Bapeko Malang, the habit of MCK in scattered communities in various villages.
15 percent of 57 villages in the city this education, there is still a habit of MCK in rivers and streams. "15 percent of the municipality that uses a public toilet in the river was spread in five districts," explains Head of City Planning, Bapeko, Erik S. Santoso. Among them, in Kedungkandang, Lowokwaru and Buring. This phenomenon also occurs in other regions such as West Malang region.

Erik explained, since there were toilet habits in the river, the question of sanitation is still a serious concern. In addition to the availability of healthy sanitation, clean lifestyle community still needs to be improved. "Based on research, community practice it because it was hereditary. So far there are still people who use the toilets in the river, "said Erik.

In Kedungkandang, some residents claimed to have been accustomed since childhood to use rivers as toilets. A number of residents who met to admit not used in the doctor's health check, but they feel healthy. "So far healthier. No illness. Pollute the environment if I am not sure, because most people still frequent bathing and washing in the river, "said Sunarti, one resident Kedungkandang.

In fact, the habit of using the river for bathing, washing clothes and utensils and toilet, will cause various diseases, especially skin diseases

Solution
Public toilets
Public toilets, public lavatories, or public conveniences are toilets that are accessible to the general public with common access from the street. Conveniences being the collective term for male and female designated toilets, convenience (singular) usually acquiring a gender attribute.

By the Goverment
"The availability of toilets is actually purely personal responsibility of each citizen, not the government. Still, West Bandung regency join the development program to prepare public toilets, as a form of government services to citizens. the cost of each toilet at 15 million rupiah / unit," said Head Environment Housing Infrastructure Sector Department of Work and Spatial Notices, Dani Prianto Hadi in Cipongkor, Sunday (18 / 7).
He said that development assistance for a toilet which was rolled out West Bandung regency, used as a stimulant for the community to build their own toilets. Communities should be made aware how important toilets. The existence of good public toilet is very influential on environmental health.

Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia

adopted from wikipedia.org

Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia is characterized by poor levels of access and service quality. Over 100 million people in Indonesia lack access to safe water and more than 70 percent of the country’s 220 million population relies on water obtained from potentially contaminated sources. With only 2% access to sewerage in urban areas is one of the lowest in the world among middle-income countries. Pollution is widespread on Bali and Java. Women in Jakarta report spending US$ 11 per month on boiling water, implying a significant burden for the poor.
The Government of Indonesia has stated its commitment to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). In order to do so, an estimated 78 million more people will require improved water supply and 73 million improved sanitation services between 2000 and 2015, not to mention necessary improvements in service quality for those already shown as having access. Current levels of investment of only US$2 per capita and year are insufficient to attain the MDGs. Furthermore, policy responsibilities are fragmented between different Ministries and local utilities that operate and maintain urban water systems remain weak.
Since decentralization was introduced in Indonesia in 2001 local governments (districts) have gained responsibility for water supply and sanitation. However, this has so far not translated into an improvement of access or service quality, mainly because devolution of responsibilities has not been followed by adequate fund channelling mechanisms to carry out this responsibility.

Water resources and use
Indonesia has over 5,590 rivers, most of them short and steep. Because of high rainfall intensities most rivers carry large quantities of sediment. Average rainfall is above 2,000 mm on most islands, except for the Lesser Sunda Islands where it is 1,500 mm. 80% of rain falls during the rainy season (October to April). While water resources are quite abundant in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and Irian, water shortages occur during the dry season in parts of Java, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands. In particular in Java, the dry season flows are inadequate to meet the demand, leading to irrigation shortages. Irrigation accounts for 93% of water use. The total storage capacity amounts to only 5% to 6% of the river flows. Construction of reservoirs is constrained by lack of good reservoir sites, high density of population at possible reservoir sites and expected short reservoir lifetimes due to siltation. Groundwater potential in Indonesia is very limited. However, much of the eastern islands depend on groundwater because of surface water scarcity. Groundwater overxploitation occurs in heavily populated coastal areas of Java, including in Jakarta and Semarang. In Jakarta it has caused seawater intrusion up to 10 km from the coast and land subsidence at a rate of 2–34 cm/year in east Jakarta. In Semarang land subsidence occurs at a rate of 9 cm/year.
Water utilities abstract water from rivers and lakes (60%), springs (25%) and groundwater (15%). For example, the main water source for Jakarta is the Jatiluhur Dam on the Citarum River 70 km southeast of the city. For those who are self-supplied or receive water from community-based organizations, shallow groundwater and springs are by far the main sources of water on most islands. On Sumatra and Irian, however, rainwater harvesting is also an important water source.
Pollution. Domestic sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and mismanaged solid waste are polluting surface and groundwater, especially in Java. Indonesia ranks among the worst countries in Asia in sewerage and sanitation coverage. Few Indonesian cities possess even minimal sanitation systems. The absence of an established sanitation network forces many households to rely upon private septic tanks or to dispose of their waste directly into rivers and canals. The commonality of the latter practice, together with the prevalence of polluted shallow wells used for drinking water supply in urban areas, has led to repeated epidemics of gastrointestinal infections.

Access
Data on access to water and sanitation in Indonesia vary significantly depending on the source consulted and the definition of access. According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation by WHO and UNICEF (see table above) access to an improved water source stood at 80% and access to improved sanitation at 52% in 2008. However, according to Indonesia's 2004 socio-economic survey (SUSENAS) only about 47% of the population has access to water from improved sources considered relatively safe. That includes 42% of the urban and 51% of the rural population. In the 8 years from 1994 to 2002, this figure increased by only 10% in rural areas and 9% in urban areas. At this rate, by 2015, only about 56% of the rural population can be expected to gain access to an improved water sources, when the MDG target for the whole country is 73%.
Access to improved sanitation in rural areas has remained stagnant at around 38% since 1985 according to the Joint Monitoring Program. More than 40% of rural households use unsanitary open pits or defecate in fields, beaches and water bodies. According to the World Bank, urban sanitation is the least well addressed of major policy issues in Indonesia. Poor sanitation in cities and small towns is posing health hazards through pollution of both ground and surface water sources used by urban populations for a variety of purposes. Disposal and treatment of sewage is available for less than 2% of the population.

Service quality
No data are available on the average continuity of water supply in Indonesian cities. However, in Jakarta 92% of users received continuous water supply in 2001.
Concerning drinking water quality, about 30% of the water distributed by water companies in the country is contaminated with E. coli or fecal coliforms and other pathogens. The results of drinking water quality tests are not made public. Most Indonesians do not dare drink water directly from the tap and boil water of buy bottled water, if they can afford it.

Health impact of inadequate water supply and sanitation
Unsafe drinking water is a major cause of diarrhea, which is the second leading killer of children under five in the country and accounts for about 20% of child deaths each year. Every year, at least 300 out of 1,000 Indonesians suffer from water-borne diseases, including cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever, according to the Ministry of Health.
Economic losses due to inadequate sanitation alone were estimated at 2.4% of GDP in 2002. Significant damage to the country's future potential in terms of infant mortality and child malnutrition in low-income areas of Indonesia is greatly associated with inadequate access to safe water and basic sanitation.
Household-level drinking water treatment
People in Jakarta spend significant resources on boiling water to make it drinkable. Indonesian women report spending more than 100,000 rupiahs or 11 US dollars a month on kerosene for boiling water. However, a new system to treat drinking water at the household level without boiling has cut down on these costs and reduces health risks among women and children.
The system, called “Air RahMat” or “gift water,” is produced by a private-public partnership called Aman Tirta. Members of Aman Tirta include the Johns Hopkins University Center for Communication Programmes and CARE International Indonesia. The brand name refers to a liquid 1.25% sodium hypochlorite (bleach) solution which is effective in deactivating micro-organisms such as E. coli in water. The solution is originally developed as part of the Safe Water Systems program of the U.S.-based Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. When used correctly in conjunction with proper storage, the water treatment solution has been shown to reduce the risk of diarrhea up to 85%. Air Rahmat is also able to protect water for two to three days from recontamination. The solution is easy to use by adding three milliliters of Air Rahmat for every 20 liters of water, shaking or stirring for 30 seconds, and waiting for at least 30 minutes until the water is ready to drink.

Responsibility for water and sanitation
Policy and regulation
Policy and regulatory responsibilities for the water and sanitation sector are shared among several ministries. While the Ministry of Health is responsible for water quality-related aspects, and to a certain extent rural services, responsibility for the urban sector is shared between the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Ministry of Public Works. The National Development Planning Agency (Bappenas) has a role in planning investments. The Ministry of Industry and Trade also has some responsibilities for the regulation of bottled water. A National Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Working Group (Pokja AMPL) coordinates between departments and with donors and other stakeholders. The working group does not have a legal basis, nor secure funding.
Most strategies for the sector are being created at the national level. Capacity problems, funding constraints and political factors at the sub-national level often mean national strategies are not well implemented. Furthermore, law enforcement is weak, especially for environmental sanitation. In 2008 the Health Ministry launched a National Strategy for Community-Led Total Sanitation, emphasizing peer pressure and shame as drivers for rural sanitation instead of public investment. The Government’s National Program for Community Empowerment (PNPM—Program Nasional Pemberdayaan Masyarakat) also has the potential to improve water and sanitation services through block grants, technical assistance and training to communities. However, similar programs have in the past only allocated around five per cent of funds to water and sanitation.
Legal framework. Relevant laws include Law No. 7/2004 on water resources; Law No. 22/1999 on local government; Law No.32/2004 on Regional Government; and Law No.33/2004 on Fiscal Balance between the Center and the Regions. The water resource law aims at integrated and sustainable water resources management and clarifies the responsibilities of the central government as well as provincial and district governments in terms of water resources management, such as the granting of water abstraction licenses. The local government law was a landmark in terms of decentralization in Indonesia after the fall of Suharto, making the previous rhetorical commitment to decentralization a reality by transferring all powers except certain specifically enumerated powers to local government.The fiscal balance law greatly increased the revenue base for local government.Relevant implementing regulations include Government Act No.16/2005 "on the development of the water supply system", which allows private sector participation in water supply; two decrees by the Ministry of Public Works from 2006 and 2007 to establish a National Water Board; and the Ministry of Home Affairs Decree No. 23/2006 on guidelines for water tariff setting. The latter stipulates that tariffs should fully recover costs including a rate of return of 10 percent. The decree No.47/1999 of the Ministry of Home Affairs on guidelines for evaluating the performance of water service providers (benchmarking) has now lost some of its teeth because of the subsequent decentralization policy. Decrees by the Ministry of Health as well as the Ministry of Industry and Trade regulate the quality of bottled water, as well as for water kiosks that refill large water bottles.

Service provision
Urban areas
The provision of water services in urban areas is the responsibility of PDAMs (Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum), Local Government Owned Water Utilities. There are 319 PDAMs in Indonesia. Two (Jakarta and North Sumatra) operate at provincial government level. All others operate at district government level, meaning at the level of a regency (of which there are 349) or a city (of which there are 91) (see List of regencies and cities of Indonesia) Most PDAM are very small, with less than 10 000 connections: only four per cent have more than 50 000 connections. Institutional responsibility for wastewater and sewerage is at the district government level; departmental responsibility varies between districts. Very few urban utilities provide sanitation services. Sanitation utilities are called PD-PAL or Local Government Owned Wastewater Utilities.
Utilities are associated in Perpamsi, the national association of water utilities. In 2002 it initiated a performance benchmarking program with support from the World Bank. The data base currently contains 80 Water Utilities (PDAM) in Indonesia, including most of the larger ones.

Rural areas
Rural Indonesia has a long history of community-managed water supply services using naturally occurring springs, rainwater and groundwater sources. However, community capacities to sustain such water systems over long periods have tended to be limited. Past rural water supply and sanitation projects have often not invested sufficiently in building community capacity to plan, implement, operate and maintain services in ways that benefit and satisfy all sections of rural societies, conditions necessary for service sustainability. Rural consumers have not consistently been offered voice and choice in decisions related to establishing and managing services and paying for them. Services have often been provided in a top-down manner by agencies external to the community, using public sector or donor funds and contractors answerable to government agencies rather than to the users of services. This has led to mismatches between what the users want and get, a lack of community ownership of rural water supply and sanitation facilities and unclear responsibilities for maintenance.
In 2003 the government endorsed, but did not adopt a National Policy for the Development of Community-Managed Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Facilities and Services that provides a road map for sector reform, by:
• Changing the policy goals for the sector, from achieving "coverage targets" counted in terms of construction of systems facilities, to the twin goals of sustainability and effective use of water supply and sanitation services;
• Espousing strategies such as empowerment of communities to choose, co-finance, construct and manage and own their water systems;
• Requiring the use of gender-and poverty-sensitive approaches in working with and empowering user communities to ensure poverty targeting and impact on local poverty;
• Building stakeholders' understanding at all levels concerning service sustainability;
• Measuring success in terms of sustained population access to services, and effective use of those services, i.e. hygienic and health - promoting use of services by all sections of communities and improved sanitation and hygiene behaviors among various age-sex groups of the population.
The community participation and cost recovery under the new approach has led to greater sustainability of services. For example, an evaluation of a Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project supported by the Asian Development Bank that did not yet use the new approach revealed that less than four years after project completion, only 30 per cent of the water supply facilities and 30 per cent of sanitation facilities constructed by the project were still functioning. However, according to a Ministry of Health report that reviewed the functionality of water infrastructure in five districts that had implemented the World Bank-supported WSLIC project from 2001 to 2006, the average functionality of public taps was 72 per cent. The significant differences in functionality between the ADB and WSLIC activities has been largely attributed to the participation of communities in the construction of infrastructure and the communities recovering monthly fees to cover maintenance costs of water and sanitation systems.
However, in peri-urban areas or rural areas that are increasingly absorbed in urban conglomerations, community management alone may not be an adequate arrangement. According to the World Bank, newer models of support and responsibility sharing between user communities and local governments or local private sector agencies are needed.

Civil society
Civil society groups, both local and international, play a vital role in the sector. Some are implementing water and sanitation programs in districts that have not yet received any form of government support in the sector. Despite their diversity, most are harmonised in their approach. Very few, however, work through government systems. Other civil society groups, including religious leaders in village communities, play a significant role in the success of community-based approaches. Religious leaders support community cohesion and influence and encourage clean and healthy behaviours to complement water and sanitation infrastructure..

History and recent developments
The first water utilities in Indonesia, called PDAM after their Indonesian acronym, were set up during the colonial period at the beginning of the 20th century. Following independence in 1945 they became part of local government. In the 1970s the central government became more involved in their financing and management. In 1987 a government act nominally handed water supply back to local governments, but in reality central government remained very involved. Only after the fall of Suharto in 1998 a serious effort at decentralization was made with the local government law of 1999 that effectively handed over responsibility for water supply to local governments.
Jakarta privatization. In June 1997 two 25-year water concessions were awarded without bidding to serve the city of Jakarta beginning in February 1998. A subsidiary of The French firm Ondeo (now Suez), called Palyja, was awarded the concession for the western part of the city and a subsidiary of the British firm Thames Water International called TPJ was awarded a concession for the eastern part.
Policy for rural water supply and sanitation. In 2003 the government adopted a National Policy for the Development of Community-Managed Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Facilities and Services that provides a clear route map for sector reform (for details see above).

Efficiency
Non-revenue water (NRW) in Indonesia’s best utilities stands at only 20%, while the worst quartile of utilities participating in Perpamsi’s benchmarking exercise have NRW of 43%. However, NRW data is generally unreliable as many PDAMs do not have meters installed to accurately measure NRW. In terms of labor productivity, the best performing utilities have a staff ratio of 4 per 1000 connections, while utilities in the worst quartile have more than 9 staff per 1000 connections. Labor productivity for water utilities is considered to be at acceptable levels if it is below 5 per 1000 connections. In Jakarta the level of non-revenue water was 51% in 2001, one of the highest levels in Indonesia. However, in terms of labor productivity the two utilities in Jakarta fare relatively well with only 5.3 employees per 1000 connections.

Cost recovery and tariffs
The Ministry of Home Affairs Decree No. 23/2006 sets out a policy of full cost recovery through tariff revenues for water utilities. The decree prescribes an increasing-block water tariff with a first subsidized tariff block for a consumption of up to 10 cubic meters per household, and a break-even tariff for higher consumption. Commercial and industrial users can be charged higher tariffs with higher blocks at the full-cost tariff. However, in reality, few utilities recover their costs. According to a 2005 study by the Department of Public Works, most PDAMs faced financial problems. Only about a third increased tariffs between 1998 and 2005. One third of utilities had foreign debt, whose value in local currency increased substantially due to the devaluation of the rupeeh in the 1998 financial crisis. Many PDAMs defaulted on loans they had received from the Ministry of Finance. As of 2009 renegotiation of these loans (principal, interest and penalties) was still underway, thus cutting off the utilities from new government loans
According to the Asian Development Bank, in Jakarta the average tariff in 2001 (average of residential and commercial users) was US$ 0.29/m3, compared to production costs estimated at only US$ 0.11/m3. 98% of revenues billed were collected. According to these figures, at least the Jakarta utility managed to recover its costs. Since then tariffs have been increased several times and, according to the International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities, reached US$ 0.77/m3.
As in many other countries, those not connected to water supply networks pay the most for water. A survey in North Jakarta found the price of water in the early 1990s was $2.62/m3 for vendor customers, $1.26/m3 for standpipe customers, $1.08/m3 for household resales customers, and only $0.18/m3 for connected households.

Investment and Financing
The water and sanitation sector is not given a high priority at the national or sub-national level, partly because of competing priorities from other sectors such as health and education. Few local governments use their own resources to implement water and sanitation activities and when given funding through open-menu infrastructure programs, local governments and communities rarely choose water and sanitation as the main activity. Most funding for the sector comes from the national level and the level of sub-national funding is often hidden as it occurs in several government departments. Funding estimates for the sector in 2008 were around one to two per cent of local government budgets.
Public investment. Total infrastructure spending in Indonesia was 55 trillion Rupiah in 2005 (US$ 5.7 billion). These expenditures were financed mainly by the local (23 trillion Rupiah) and central government (also 23 million Rupiah), followed by the provincial government (9 million Rupiah).
While it is not entirely clear how much of this sum has been invested in water supply and sanitation, the ADB estimates that only US$ 124m per year (average of 2004-2005) from the regular national budget were allocated to water supply and sanitation.
Since decentralization in the year 2001, local Governments have typically invested less than 2% of their annual budgets on water supply, even less on sanitation and almost nothing on improving hygiene practices. Assuming that 2% of local government (provincial and district) budgets are spent on water and sanitation, local government investments in water and sanitation were 3.6 trillion Rupiah or US$375m or about three times higher than the US$124m financed through the central budget. Total investments thus can be very tentatively estimated at about US$500m, or slightly more than what has been estimated by one source as the required investments to meet the MDGs, or US$450 million per year At about US$2 per capita and year these investments still remain far lower than investments in water and sanitation in other middle-income countries.
The economic crisis of the late 1990s had severely curtailed investment in infrastructure. Central government spending on development dropped from US$14 billion in 1994 to US$5 billion in 2002, within which the share of infrastructure spending further declined from 57 to 30% over the same period. Moreover, according to the World Bank, poor institutional and regulatory frameworks and rampant corruption in the infrastructure sector, which were prevalent even before the crisis, continued without serious sector reform efforts by the government until today.
Utility financing. Loan financing to PDAMs faces numerous challenges. For example, the Ministry of Finance requires its loans to be channeled through regional governments whose legislatures have to pledge future central government transfers as collateral. Since regional legislatures are reluctant to do so, central government lending to utilities is not likely to re-emerge even after the issue of old debt would be settled. Two efforts at promoting the issuing of corporate bonds by creditworthy utilities, one supported by partial guarantees by USAID and the other by KfW, have failed "because of the risk-averse culture which is so pervasive in Indonesian central and regional governments", according to a USAID report. Under a 2009 Presidential decree, however, state banks can provide partial credit guarantees of 70% of loans to creditworthy PDAMs plus an interest subsidy. As for direct lending by the Ministry of Finance, regional governments have to provide partial guarantees for these loans, which they are reluctant to provide.
Thus PDAMs are likely to be limited in their access to finance largely to grants, which are scarce. In 2009 there were three primary sources of national government grant funding for water supply:
• Matching grants (hibah) to regional governments. Water supply is expected to receive Rp 3 trillion of hibah from the national budget between 2010 and 2014, complemented by funds from external donors.
• a Special Allocations Fund (DAK), which accounted for 2.4% of the national budget in 2009, of which about 5% were directed towards the water supply sector, especially village community-based systems.
• Grants by the Ministry of Public Works for raw water supply and treatment.
Microfinance. Bank Negara Indonesia provides small loans to community-based organizations (CBOs) engaged in water supply in Java. The pilot project is part of a national program called Kredit Usaha Rakyat that provides loans for community and small scale enterprises. The World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program in collaboration with the AusAID-funded Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative (INDII), the Ministry of Public Works, and Directorate of Public Private Partnership Development of the National Development Planning Agency provide technical assistance to the CBOs.

External cooperation
External support to the water and sanitation sector in Indonesia is provided through multilateral (World Bank, Asiand Development Bank and UN) as well as bilateral cooperation with individual countries. Most external partners have focused their cooperation on rural areas, or work exclusively there. Most of the support for urban areas comes from Japan, the Netherlands and the United States.

Multilateral cooperation
Asian Development Bank. The Community Water Services and Health Project, approved in 2005, aimed at providing clean water and sanitation facilities to about 1,500 communities of rural Indonesia, including tsunami-affected areas. The Directorate General of Communicable Disease Control and Environmental Health of the Ministry of Health is the executing agency of the project
UNICEF. UNICEF supports the Indonesian government in developing and implementing strategies that improve drinking water and sanitation conditions across the country. UNICEF also assists the government in improving relevant planning mechanisms, monitoring systems and databases.
World Bank. The World Bank's Third Water Supply and Sanitation for Low Income communities Project, approved in 2006, aims to increase the number of low-income rural and peri-urban populations accessing improved water and sanitation facilities and practicing improved hygiene behaviors. The project supports community driven development (CDD) planning and management of water, sanitation and hygiene improvement programs, builds stakeholder commitment and aims to expand the capacity of central, provincial and district government agencies. It provides participating communities with a menu of technical options for rural water supply and public sanitation infrastructure. The project is implemented by the Ministry of Health.

Bilateral cooperation
Australia. Australia has supported efforts to improve rural water supply and sanitation in Indonesia, particularly Eastern Indonesia, for almost 30 years. AusAID's support is in the form of grants for technical assistance to the Water Supply and Sanitation Policy Formulation and Action Planning Project (WASPOLA) of the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), as well as to the Second Water and Sanitation for Low-Income Communities program (WSLIC2), also funded mainly by the World Bank. A 2009 evaluation by the Australian government concluded that Australian aid to the water sector "has been strategic, flexible and appropriate" and has assisted in "providing sustainable piped-water supply to some 4.6 million people and has dramatically improved sector coordination at national and sub national levels." The evaluation also noted that there has been much less focus on sanitation, although the Government has begun to replicate the innovative Community-Led Total Sanitation approach in an attempt to achieve open defecation free (ODF) communities. The report also noted that a "national working group established through WASPOLA has strengthened government capacity in research, communications, marketing and public relations", but that these approaches are less well integrated at the sub-national level. It also notes that "despite its relatively low funding for this sector compared to that of some other donors and multilateral agencies, Australia is seen as a lead donor." It also notes that AusAID-supported technical assistance has "relied heavily on external consultants and have not built enough technical capacity into government to ensure sustainability." Female participation at the local level was mandatory in the project, but once project handover occurred women’s participation often dropped. The community-managed approach "enhanced transparency and accountability", but districts are not using this model in their own projects due to lack of capacity and political will.

Canada. CARE Canada and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) support the CARE-Sulawesi Rural Community Development Project (SRCD). CARE uses the "community management approach", by which communities are heavily involved right from the very beginning, from the design through construction, implementation, operation and maintenance. The approach works by establishing a village water committee and a series of sub-committees: for example, sanitation, construction and finance. The village itself decides how it will raise the amount of money needed for its contribution to the project. This is usually done by monthly levy whereby each family contributes a small amount of money over the course of four to six months. The village construction committee also organizes the labour to install the system. All the labour is done manually without the use of heavy machinery, which means a low environmental impact and lower cost. With water close at hand, most households are also building their own simple latrines.
The Netherlands. The public Dutch water company Water Supply Company Drenthe (WMD) and Dutch development aid support various water companies in Eastern Indonesia. Joint venture contracts have been concluded with four companies (Ambon, Bacau (Maluku), Biak, Sorong (Irian Jaya/Papua). Negotiations are going on with seven other companies in North Sulawesi, Maluku and Papua. The WMD has reserved 3.4 million euros for the project.

United States. Since early 2005 USAID has provided technical assistance to water utilities (PDAMs) in Java and Sumatra on issues related to full cost recovery tariffs and improved technical operation, with the objective of improving their creditworthiness and ability to borrow to meet network expansion needs. USAID is also looking at ways to use its partial credit guarantee mechanism to further increase local water utilities’ access to commercial financing.

Worrying, Water Pollution at Brantas River

from : vhrmedia.com
About 19 million people of East Java, who live along the riverside of Kali Brantas, have contributed to 30% of water pollution at that river. Meanwhile, the most pollution comes from industries, which do not have good waste management.

Water pollution at Brantas River is deteriorating as only a few people who live at the riverside own private water closet. There are only 57% of people in East Java own private water closet, and only 47% of those water closet meet the standards.

The chief of Research and Development of Local Potency Unit, the Institution of Research and Empowering People (P3D LPPM), the Sepuluh November Institute of Technology, Eddy Sudjono, revealed the fact, Monday (6/14).

It needs hard effort and commitments of the government to solve environmental problems in East Java. So far, Banjarmasin is the only city to put water waste management cost on their local budget. “But there are no other cities, including Surabaya, put water waste management cost n their budget,” Eddy said.

Surabaya and East Java will suffer for water crisis and extreme temperature rise, if water pollution at Brantas River is not solved immediately, Eddy Sudjono predicted. The local government must refer to the Ministry of Environment’s Decree No. 112 about centralized sanitation system.

WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water; and, in almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities.

Introduction
Water pollution is a major global problem. It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day. Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution, and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, industrialized countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bay and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted.
Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water.

Categories
Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are interrelated. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.

Point sources

Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes. The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such as from construction sites.

Non–point sources
Non–point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution.
Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. However where such water is not channeled and drains directly to ground it is a non-point source.

Groundwater pollution
Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point source or non-point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants.

Causes
The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally-occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.
Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.
Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

Pathogens
Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not an actual cause of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which have caused human health problems include:
 Burkholderia pseudomallei
 Cryptosporidium parvum
 Giardia lamblia
 Salmonella
 Novovirus and other viruses
 Parasitic worms (helminths).
High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges. This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms.
Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

Chemical and other contaminants
Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.
Organic water pollutants include:

 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform
 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater runoff
 Tree and bush debris from logging operations
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage. Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.
 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products

Inorganic water pollutants include:
 Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)
 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
 Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates--which are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff) and acid mine drainage
 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites

Macroscopic pollution—large visible items polluting the water—may be termed "floatables" in an urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items as:
 Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters
 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets
 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships

Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decreases oxygen levels (which can kill fish) and affects ecosystem composition, such as invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters.
Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants
Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force. Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation.
Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The North Pacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.
Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especially over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals). Both of these chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).
Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity: however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography.
There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants.

Measurement
Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature. Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events.

Sampling
Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.
Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity.

Physical testing
Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentration (e.g., total suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity.

Chemical testing
Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides.

Biological testing
Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem.

Control
Domestic sewage
Domestic sewage is 99.9 percent pure water, while the other 0.1 percent are pollutants. Although found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale. In urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. In the U.S., most of these plants are operated by local government agencies, frequently referred to as publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Municipal treatment plants are designed to control conventional pollutants: BOD and suspended solids. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 percent or more of these pollutants. Some plants have additional sub-systems to treat nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants found in industrial wastewater.
Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:
 utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment
 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very expensive option).
A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil. Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned treatment system (e.g. in a rural community).

Industrial wastewater
Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially-treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems.
Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention.
Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:
 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation
 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes.

Agricultural wastewater
Nonpoint source controls
Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States. Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers.
Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients.
To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality.

Point source wastewater treatment
Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are called concentrated animal feeding operations or confined animal feeding operations in the U.S. and are being subject to increasing government regulation. Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes, as are anaerobic lagoons. Some animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement

Construction site stormwater
Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:
 erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and
 sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.
Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of:
 spill prevention and control plans, and
 specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms.

Urban runoff (stormwater)
Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best management practices (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions.
Pollution prevention practices include low impact development techniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides). Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices.
Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by stormwater management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream

SANITATION

E. Coli bacteria under magnification


Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of wastes. Hazards can be either physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause health problems are human and animal feces, solid wastes, domestic wastewater (sewage, sullage, greywater), industrial wastes, and agricultural wastes. Hygienic means of prevention can be by using engineering solutions (e.g. sewerage and wastewater treatment), simple technologies (e.g. latrines, septic tanks), or even by personal hygiene practices (e.g. simple handwashing with soap).
The World Health Organization states that:
"Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease world-wide and improving sanitation is known to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in households and across communities. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal.
The term "sanitation" can be applied to a specific aspect, concept, location, or strategy, such as:
Basic sanitation - refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the indicator used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation.
On-site sanitation - the collection and treatment of waste is done where it is deposited. Examples are the use of pit latrines, septic tanks, and imhoff tanks.
Food sanitation - refers to the hygienic measures for ensuring food safety.
Environmental sanitation - the control of environmental factors that form links in disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise and pollution control.
Ecological sanitation - a concept and an approach of recycling to nature the nutrients from human and animal wastes.

History
Further information: History of water supply and sanitation
The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi of Indus Valley civilization. This urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller pole.
Roman cities and Roman villas had elements of sanitation systems, delivering water in the streets of towns such as Pompeii, and building stone and wooden drains to collect and remove wastewater from populated areas - see for instance the Cloaca Maxima into the River Tiber in Rome. But there is little record of other sanitation in most of Europe until the High Middle Ages. Unsanitary conditions and overcrowding were widespread throughout Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages, resulting periodically in cataclysmic pandemics such as the Plague of Justinian (541-42) and the Black Death (1347–1351), which killed tens of millions of people and radically altered societies.
Very high infant and child mortality prevailed in Europe throughout medieval times, due not only to deficiencies in sanitation but to insufficient food for a population which had expanded faster than agriculture. This was further complicated by frequent warfare and exploitation of civilians by brutal rulers. Life for the average person at this time was indeed 'nasty, brutish and short.

Wastewater sanitation
Wastewater collection
The standard sanitation technology in urban areas is the collection of wastewater in sewers, its treatment in wastewater treatment plants for reuse or disposal in rivers, lakes or the sea. Sewers are either combined with storm drains or separated from them as sanitary sewers. Combined sewers are usually found in the central, older parts or urban areas. Heavy rainfall and inadequate maintenance can lead to combined sewer overflows or sanitary sewer overflows, i.e. more or less diluted raw sewage being discharged into the environment. Industries often discharge wastewater into municipal sewers, which can complicate wastewater treatment unless industries pre-treat their discharges.
The high investment cost of conventional wastewater collection systems are difficult to afford for many developing countries. Some countries have therefore promoted alternative wastewater collection systems such as condominial sewerage, which uses smaller diameter pipes at lower depth with different network layouts from conventional sewerage.

Wastewater treatment
In developed countries treatment of municipal wastewater is now widespread, but not yet universal (for an overview of technologies see wastewater treatment). In developing countries most wastewater is still discharged untreated into the environment. For example, in Latin America only about 15% of collected sewerage is being treated (see water and sanitation in Latin America)

Reuse of wastewater
The reuse of untreated wastewater in irrigated agriculture is common in developing countries. The reuse of treated wastewater in landscaping (esp. on golf courses), irrigated agriculture and for industrial use is becoming increasingly widespread.
In many peri-urban and rural areas households are not connected to sewers. They discharge their wastewater into septic tanks or other types of on-site sanitation.

Ecological sanitation
For more details on this topic, see Ecological sanitation.
Ecological sanitation is sometimes presented as a radical alternative to conventional sanitation systems. Ecological sanitation is based on composting or vermicomposting toilets where an extra separation of urine and feces at the source for sanitization and recycling has been done. It thus eliminates the creation of blackwater and eliminates fecal pathogens from any still present wastewater (urine). If ecological sanitation is practiced municipal wastewater consists only of greywater, which can be recycled for gardening. However, in most cases greywater continues to be discharged to sewers.

Sanitation and public health
The importance of waste isolation lies in an effort to prevent water and sanitation related diseases, which afflicts both developed countries as well as developing countries to differing degrees. It is estimated that up to 5 million people die each year from preventable water-borne disease, as a result of inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices. The affects of sanitation have also had a large impact on society. Published in Griffins Public Sanitation proven studies show that higher sanitation produces more attractiveness.

Global access to improved sanitation
The Joint Monitoring Program for water and sanitation of WHO and UNICEF has defined improved sanitation as
connection to a public sewer
connection to a septic system
pour-flush latrine
simple pit latrine
ventilated improved pit latrine

According to that definition, 62% of the world's population has access to improved sanitation in 2008, up 8% since 1990. Only slightly more than half of them or 31% of the world population lived in houses connected to a sewer. Overall, 2.5 billion people lack access to improved sanitation and thus must resort to open defecation or other unsanitary forms of defecation, such as public latrines or open pit latrines. This includes 1.2 billion people who have access to no facilities at all. This outcome presents substantial public health risks as the waste could contaminate drinking water and cause life threatening forms of diarrhea to infants. Improved sanitation, including hand washing and water purification, could save the lives of 1.5 million children who suffer from diarrheal diseases each year.
In developed countries, where less than 20% of the world population lives, 99% of the population has access to improved sanitation and 81% were connected to sewers.

Solid waste disposal
Disposal of solid waste is most commonly conducted in landfills, but incineration, recycling, composting and conversion to biofuels are also avenues. In the case of landfills, advanced countries typically have rigid protocols for daily cover with topsoil, where underdeveloped countries customarily rely upon less stringent protocols. The importance of daily cover lies in the reduction of vector contact and spreading of pathogens. Daily cover also minimises odor emissions and reduces windblown litter. Likewise, developed countries typically have requirements for perimeter sealing of the landfill with clay-type soils to minimize migration of leachate that could contaminate groundwater (and hence jeopardize some drinking water supplies).
For incineration options, the release of air pollutants, including certain toxic components is an attendant adverse outcome. Recycling and biofuel conversion are the sustainable options that generally have superior life cycle costs, particularly when total ecological consequences are considered. Composting value will ultimately be limited by the market demand for compost product.

Sanitation in the developing world
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) include a target to reduce by half the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation by 2015. In December 2006, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2008 'The International Year of Sanitation', in recognition of the slow progress being made towards the MDGs sanitation target. The year aims to develop awareness and action to meet the target. Particular concerns are:
Removing the stigma around sanitation, so that the importance of sanitation can be more easily and publicly discussed.
Highlighting the poverty reduction, health and other benefits that flow from better hygiene, household sanitation arrangements and wastewater treatment.
Research from the Overseas Development Institute suggests that sanitation and hygiene promotion needs to be better 'mainstreamed' in development, if the MDG on sanitation is to be met. At present, promotion of sanitation and hygiene is mainly carried out through water institutions. The research argues that there are, in fact, many institutions that should carry out activities to develop better sanitation and hygiene in developing countries. For example, educational institutions can teach on hygiene, and health institutions can dedicate resources to preventative works (to avoid, for example, outbreaks of cholera).
The Institute of Development Studies (IDS) coordinated research programme on Community-led Total Sanitation (CLTS) is a radically different approach to rural sanitation in developing countries and has shown promising successes where traditional rural sanitation programmes have failed. CLTS is an unsubsidized approach to rural sanitation that facilitates communities to recognize the problem of open defecation and take collective action to clean up and become ‘open defecation free’. It uses community-led methods such as participatory mapping and analysing pathways between feces and mouth as a means of galvanizing communities into action. An IDS 'In Focus' Policy Brief suggests that in many countries the Millennium development goal for sanitation is off track and asks how CLTS can be adopted and spread on a large scale in the many countries and regions where open defecation still prevails.

Sanitation in the food industry
Sanitation within the food industry means to the adequate treatment of food-contact surfaces by a process that is effective in destroying vegetative cells of microorganisms of public health significance, and in substantially reducing numbers of other undesirable microorganisms, but without adversely affecting the product or its safety for the consumer (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Code of Federal Regulations, 21CFR110, USA). Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures are indispensable for food industries in US, which are regulated by 9 CFR part 416 in conjunction with 21 CFR part 178.1010. Similaly in Japan, food hygiene has to be reached through the compliance of Food Sanitation Law.
Additionally, in the food and Biopharmaceutical industries, the term sanitary equipment means equipment that is fully cleanable using Clean-in-place (CIP), and Sterilization in place (SIP) procedures: that is fully drainable from cleaning solutions and other liquids. The design should have a minimum amount of deadleg or areas where the turbulence during cleaning is not enough to remove product deposits. In general, to improve cleanability, this equipment is made from Stainless Steel 316L, (an alloy containing small amounts of molybdenum). The surface is usually electropolished to an effective surface roughness of less than 0.5 micrometre, to reduce the possibility of bacterial adhesion to the surface.